This book does not provide the required information and supervision that are necessary for using projective techniques. L05 History To understand current assessment techniques and instruments, counselors need informa- tion about the history of assessment. The goal of this brief excursion into the develop- ment of assessment is to provide a context for understanding the current state of the field.
Through knowledge of relevant issues and with an understanding of why and how some instruments were developed, counselors can begin the process of becoming informed, competent users of assessments.
Early Testing Assessment is not a new phenomenon; testing has been around for many centuries Anastasi, ; Bowman, There is some evidence that the Greeks might have used testing ap- proximately 2, years ago.
The Chinese used a civil services examination 2, years ago, and even then, there were discussions of the effects of social class, cheating, and examiner bias Bowman, In general, however, the English biologist Francis Galton is credited with launching the testing movement.
Galton did not set out to initiate testing, but in his study of human heredity during the late s and early s, he wanted a way to measure human characteristics of biologically related and unrelated individuals. Galton believed that. He based this opinion on the premise that all information is conveyed through the senses, and thus, the more perceptive a person is, the greater the amount of information that is accessible for intel- ligent judgments and actions.
Galton also made a significant contribution in the area of statistics. Wundt, the man credited with founding the science of psychology, was also interested in measuring psy- chological constructs. Another prominent figure in the early testing movement was the American psychologist James McKeen Cattell. Drawing from the work of both Galton and Wundt, Cattell expanded testing to include memory and other simple mental processes. Cattell was the first to use the term mental test, although his mental tests were quite simple in that they were not strongly related to estimates of school achievement or to other criteria now considered indicative of intelligence Anastasi, The result was the first ver- sion of the Binet—Simon scale, published in The instrument, which was individually administered, was a simple instrument with only 30 items and a norming group of The Binet—Simon scale was different from previous measures of intelligence in that it focused on assessing judgment, comprehension, and reasoning.
The instrument was revised in to incorporate a ratio of mental age level to chronological age level. This was labeled the intelligence quotient IQ. This method of calculating IQ was used for many years, although, as will be discussed in later chapters, there are some problems associated with it. Terman at Stanford University.
While individually administered intelligence tests were being developed, there was also some interest in group testing, particularly by military leaders in the United States during World War I. In , the army contacted Robert Yerkes, then president of the American Psy- chological Association, to have psychologists assist in developing a group intelligence test. The army hired psychologists and a group-administered intelligence assessment was developed for use in selection and classification of personnel.
The army used a multiple-choice format, which had only recently been introduced by Arthur Otis. These first group-administered intelligence tests were known as Army Alpha, which was used for routine testing, and Army Beta, which was a nonlanguage instrument designed for use with illiterate or non-English-speaking re- cruits Figure 1.
Although these instruments were never really used in World War I, shortly after the end of the war, the army released these two instruments for public use. Another influential person of this time was Frank Parsons, who is often cited as be- ing the father of guidance. Although Parsons did not develop any assessment, he did de- vise one of the first approaches to career counseling. In his three-step career counseling.
Spearman proposed that intelligence consisted of two types of factors—one that pertained to general tasks and another that pertained to specific tasks. Thurstone , on the other hand, proposed that there is no one general factor of intelligence; rather, there are seven primary mental abilities. This debate about whether intelligence is one general factor g or multiple factors continues, and even today, theoreticians have differing views of intel- ligence.
During this time, there also was increased activity related to developing measures of intelligence. Terman and Merrill revised the version and the test was published using its current name, the Stanford—Binet. In , another significant test, the Wechsler— Bellevue Intelligence Scale, was published.
The primary author was David Wechsler, who continued to make significant contributions to intelligence testing until his death in Interest in assessment was not restricted to intelligence testing alone. At the end of World War I, there was also an interest in identifying men who were not emotionally capa- ble of serving in the armed forces.
Consistent with the Army Alpha and Army Beta, this self-report inventory was released for civilian use, where it spurred the development of other self-report personal- ity inventories. In , Rorschach described the technique of using inkblots as a tool for diagnostic investigation of the personality.
Although his methods did not have a signifi- cant impact immediately, his writings had a major influence on clinical assessment later. Another projective test of personality i. In this assessment, Murray and Morgan presented individuals with pictures and the examinees told stories about the pictures. The examiner would then evaluate the text in order to identify themes. A more detailed discussion of both of these projective assess- ments is included in Chapter As private industries began to see that tests could be used for selecting and classifying industrial personnel, special aptitude tests were developed, primarily for use in clerical and mechanical areas.
There was also the development of vocational counseling instruments, such as the publication in of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank by E. Another individual active in the development of interest inventories for vocational counseling was G. In , the first standardized achievement battery, the Stanford Achievement Test, was published.
This instrument was designed to provide measures of performance in different school subjects as opposed to testing in only a single subject. In the mids, there was a move from oral achievement examina- tions to written essay testing. By the s, there was considerable evidence concerning the difficulties of written essay examinations, particularly due to the lack of agreement among teachers in grading essay items.
The desire for more objectivity in testing promoted the use of more objective items and the development of state, regional, and national achievement testing programs. The rapid advancement in many areas of testing during the s and s led to a need for a resource to identify and evaluate testing instruments.
The first edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook was published in to fill that need. Oscar Buros estab- lished these yearbooks to provide information about instruments as well as to critique the properties of the instruments. The Mental Measurements Yearbooks continue to be a good resource for counselors currently. Therefore, projective techniques, such as the Rorschach, began to become more popular. With projective techniques, clients respond to a relatively unstructured task, and their responses are then evaluated.
The increased use of projective techniques did not, however, hamper the development of self-report instruments. In the early s, Hathaway and McKinley developed a prominent personality instrument, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI , which incorporated validity scales to assess the degree to which individuals portrayed themselves in an overly positive or negative way.
The MMPI also contained items that were empirically selected and keyed to criterion rather than items that appeared to measure different aspects of personality.
Standardized achievement tests were also becoming well established in the public schools. Although single aptitude tests were already in existence, most of the multiple ap- titude batteries appeared after The development of multiple aptitude batteries came late compared with other assessment areas, which was directly related to the refinement of the statistical technique of factor analysis.
With the increased use of assessment instruments, problems associated with these in- struments began to emerge. As criticisms of assessment rose, it became clear that there was a need for standards with respect to the development and use of instruments.
The American Psychological Association published the first edition of defined standards. These standards continue to be revised, with the most recent edition published in , and serve as a significant resource in the evaluation and appropriate use of appraisal instruments. As assessment became more established, it also became more sophisticated.
Individuals began to see that centralized publication of tests would be convenient for consumers as well as, quite possibly, profitable for the publishers.
With the cen- tralization of some publishing, electronic scoring became more cost-effective. Electronic scoring reduced scoring errors and allowed for more complicated scoring procedures. The proliferation of large-scale testing in schools, along with the increased use of testing in employment and the military, led to widespread public concern. Numerous magazine arti- cles and books questioned the use of psychological instruments and uncovered misuses of these instruments.
Assessment instruments were particularly scrutinized for racial or eth- nic bias, fairness, and accuracy. This scrutiny revealed many limitations of existing instru- ments, particularly those concerning the use of some instruments with minority clients.
An interesting paradox occurred during the s. Although there was substantial con- cern about the use of tests, there was also a grassroots movement related to minimum com- petency testing that encouraged more testing. This movement grew out of concern that high school students were graduating without sufficient skills.
Because the public wanted to ensure that children reached a minimal level of competency before they graduated, many states enacted legislation requiring students to pass a minimum competency exam- ination before they could be awarded a high school diploma Lerner, In addition, legislation at the national level had a significant impact on testing. In , the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act was passed, mandating that parents and children older than 18 had the right to review their own school records.
This legislation also specified topics that could not be assessed without parental permission. As the country was beginning to take advantage of advances in technology, the field of assessment was also changing. Computers began to be used more, particularly for scoring. Near the end of the s, the assessment field began to explore the interactive nature of computers and methods for using computers not only to score but also to administer and interpret assessment results. With the increased avail- ability of personal computers, clients could take an assessment instrument on a computer and receive the results immediately.
For example, if a client got one item cor- rect, then the next item could be more difficult, but if a client got the item wrong, the next item could be easier. There also was an increase in computer-generated reports, where in- stead of a psychologist writing a report, the report was written by a computer. Earlier criticisms of assessment techniques led to many instruments being revised.
New instruments designed to be sensitive to cultural diversity were also devel- oped e. Issues related to cultural bias and sensitivity to multicultural influences that arose in the s and s continued to be researched and discussed. Many professional organizations began to realize that standards for multicultural counseling and assessment needed to be developed. A major testing movement within the s was authentic assessment, the purpose of which is to evaluate using a method consistent with the instructional area and to gather multiple indicators of performance.
Teachers often use portfolio assessment, where multiple assignments are gathered together and evaluated. Rather than using only one multiple-choice test, teachers evaluate multiple essays, projects, and tests that are designed to represent the material being taught. Technol- ogy and the Internet are continuing to change the manner in which assessments are de- veloped, administered, scored, and interpreted.
Thousands of assessments are on the Internet; however, it is difficult for clients to determine what assessments have been researched and the degree to which validation evidence has been accumulated. Individuals might make important life decisions e.
Multicultural issues will continue to be a focus of research in the assessment area. Iden- tifying methods of assessing individuals with different cultural backgrounds is complex, and it is hoped that the field will make strides in this area. A number of instruments have already been revised since with the goal of diminishing instrument bias.
In addition, as we progress toward a global society, there is interest in assessment instruments that can be used in multiple countries. Certainly the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of has had a dramatic influ- ence on achievement testing in the schools. In many ways, the Act was passed to make schools more accountable.
The theme of accountability is also evident for counselors in- terested in being mental health counselors. Indications are that counselors will need to be more accountable and provide effectiveness data to various constituencies. Arguably, this is another time of change within the field of assessment.
Its revision pro- vides more clarity about recent advancements in the assessment and focuses on test fair- ness. The American Psychiatric Association published the first edition of the DSM in to provide a common nomenclature regarding mental disturbances and disorders.
Through various revisions, the DSM has served as the guidebook for the diagnosis of mental disorders for. Other future trends in assessment may turn out to be significant, but what is clear is this is an exciting time for counselors with regard to assessment. Summary Often the terms assessment and appraisal have different meanings in the helping profes- sion, depending on the situation and context. This book defines both terms as procedures, including formal and informal techniques, designed to gather information about clients.
Assessment can involve formal tests, psychological inventories, checklists, scales, inter- views, and observations. The degree to which counselors accurately assesses clients will influence the effectiveness of their counseling.
Assessment is an integral part of the coun- seling process, and as such, counselors need to develop proficient assessment skills. The history of assessment in counseling indicates that there has been an ebb and flow in assessment strategies.
In the United States today, there is considerable interest in various areas of testing, and some environments, such as schools, have seen a significant increase in assessments. Given current social and political influences, it is even more important for counselors to understand issues in assessment. The development of assessment skills involves knowledge of basic measurement techniques and methods for evaluating instru- ments.
These skills also involve knowledge of the constructs e. Assessment results can some- times have a dramatic effect on a client; therefore, counselors should strive to ensure that assessment results are used in a professional and ethical manner. In the past, psychologists have challenged whether counselors have the appropriate training and background to use assessment. If counselors want to continue to have a place in providing mental health ser- vices, then they need to be proficient in assessment.
The following chapters are designed to provide counselors with an introduction to key issues in assessment with an emphasis on understanding basic concepts related to measurement. Visit CengageBrain. Learning Objectives L01 Distinguish among the measurement scales L02 Differentiate between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced instruments L03 Construct a frequency distribution L04 Describe three measures of central tendency L05 Calculate variance and standard deviation L06 Understand the characteristics of a normal distribution L07 Interpret a percentile score L08 Distinguish among z scores, T scores, and stanines L09 Understand the different methods for gathering a normative sample.
It is difficult to draw any conclusions based solely on this score of Even if the scores range from 0 to 60, a score of 60 would mean something different if everyone else taking the instrument had a score of 58 than it would if everyone else scored a Any score on any instrument is difficult to interpret without additional information. The basic principles discussed in this chapter will assist counselors in understanding assessment scores and results and will help them begin to know how to interpret those scores to clients.
In fact, I would ar- gue that a test user without knowledge of basic measurement principles is analogous to a tourist lost in a strange city without any navigation assistance.
Measurement typically involves the application of specific procedures for assign- ing numbers to objects. When an entity is measured, there are rules for how the mea- surement is performed. As an example, there is a rule related to the length of an inch. An inch is always the same distance regardless of the place or time that it is measured. There are four basic types of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ra- tio.
Any measurement of a client whether it is height or level of anxiety involves one of these four types of measurement scales. Statistical tests are often used to analyze the psychometric qualities of an instrument.
The type of measurement scale will influence the selection of appropriate statistical techniques. Therefore, one of the early steps in evalu- ating an instrument is to identify the measurement scale used and then determine if the statistical analyses are appropriate for that type of measurement scale.
The nominal scale, which is the most elementary of the measurement scales, involves classifying by name based on characteristics of the person or object being measured. In other words, the intent of the nominal scale is to name an object. If this scale is used, there is no indication of amount or magnitude. When numbers are assigned to groups, it is not possible to perform many of the common statistical analyses.
For example, the average for the above numbers for party affiliation is 2. With a nominal scale, we can get only a count or a percentage of individuals who may fall into a specific category.
An ordinal scale provides a measure of magnitude and, thus, it often provides more in- formation than does a nominal scale. An instrument with an ordinal scale makes it possi- ble to determine which scores are smaller or larger than other scores. Ranking a group of children from best to worst behaved in the classroom is an example of an ordinal scale. The ordinal scale enables one to rank or order individuals or objects, but that is the extent of the precision.
Unless we know that there are equal intervals between points throughout the scale, all we can say is that Rebecca received the highest score, you were in the middle, and Jason had the lowest score of the group. With any kind of measurement, unless there are equal units e. In an interval scale, the units are in equal intervals; thus, a difference of 5 points between 45 and 50 represents the same amount of change as the difference of 5 points between 85 and It is often difficult to design instruments that measure psycholog- ical and educational aspects in equal intervals.
Consider, for example, the difficulty in developing items for a depression scale in which the intervals would always be equal throughout the scoring of the instrument. In counseling, many instruments are treated as if there were interval data. For example, the difference between 85 and on an intelligence test is supposedly the same as the difference between and Many of the statistical techniques used to evaluate assessment instruments also assume that there is an interval scale.
There are instruments, however, that do not have an interval scale and that should not be evaluated using those statistical techniques. In evaluating. Sometimes a researcher will put together an instrument, for example, using a Likert scale, where it is very difficult to achieve interval data e.
In this example, is the difference between strongly disagree and disagree equal to the difference between disagree and agree? The researcher may then use statistics that require interval data when that is not appropriate.
We should be somewhat cautious in using an instrument developed in this manner. A ratio scale has all the properties of an interval scale, but the former requires the ex- istence of a meaningful zero. A good example of a meaningful zero is driving and miles per hour. When you are driving at zero miles per hour, you are stopped, and not mov- ing is a meaningful zero. With intelligence tests, there is no definition of what a score of zero means.
Therefore, the results from an intelligence test might be considered an interval scale but not a ratio scale. In measuring other entities, such as pulse or liquid ounces, there are meaningful zeros. Weight is an example of a ratio scale because pounds are equal units and a meaningful zero exists. With this type of scale, it is possible to compute ratios and make conclusions that something is twice as big as something else.
For example, a person who weighs pounds is twice as large as someone who weighs pounds. With inter- val scales, such as IQ, these types of conclusions cannot be made. Thus, we cannot say that someone whose IQ is is twice as smart as someone whose IQ is As indicated earlier, the level of measurement influences the methods that can be used to evaluate the instrument. Therefore, counselors need to consider the scale of measurement when they begin to examine an instrument. L02 Norm-Referenced vs.
Criterion-Referenced Instruments To interpret a score on any instrument, practitioners first need to consider whether it is a norm-referenced or criterion-referenced instrument. A norming group can be quite large, such as a national sample of 2, adults who have taken a personality inventory. Criterion-referenced instruments are sometimes called domain- or objective-referenced.
In criterion-referenced instruments, results are reported in terms of some specific domain. In criterion-referenced testing, the testing often pertains to whether a person has reached a certain standard of performance within that domain. Many of the tests you have taken in your academic career have been. Sometimes with a criterion-referenced test there is a mastery component. In these cases, a predetermined cutoff score indicates whether the person has attained an established level of mastery.
Likewise, a teacher may test to find out if a student has mas- tered the multiplication table for the number 3 before allowing the student to learn the multiplication table for the number 4.
Professional licensing examinations for counselors and psychologists are also examples of criterion-referenced tests that include a mastery component. To be licensed in many states, counselors must meet a preestablished score on a licensing examination that reflects a certain level of mastery.
Individuals who do not attain that score are considered not to have mastered the body of knowledge necessary to perform as professional counselors.
There are several difficulties in developing sound criterion-referenced instruments. Therefore, an instrument should adequately measure that domain.
For example, to show mastery of a theories and techniques class in a counseling pro- gram, a criterion-referenced test for this class would need to adequately measure all the information in the domain of counseling theories and techniques. However, there is no universal agreement within the field about which theories are most important, nor is there complete agreement on which counseling techniques are most effective.
Therefore, it is difficult to determine what content should be included on a theories and techniques test. With higher-order knowledge areas, it is often quite difficult to define definitively the precise content domain and determine the degree to which topics within the content domain are particularly or less important. Anastasi and Urbina contended that criterion-referenced testing is best for assessing basic skills, such as reading and mathe- matics at the elementary level.
Another problem with criterion-referenced instruments is determining the criterion for mastery level. This issue centers on what exact score truly indicates that someone has mas- tered the content.
What about the person who scores below the mastery level because of a mistake in marking an answer? It is often dif- ficult to determine the exact score that indicates whether someone has, indeed, mastered that content. The consequences of making mistakes in misidentification can often influ- ence the setting of the mastery level. For example, in a professional licensing examination e. To keep this from happening, the cut- off score might be set quite high to minimize the number of false positives.
In this example, this fictitious instrument is used to identify which indi- viduals have the greatest potential for being superb counselors as compared with other individuals.
Often with norm-referenced instruments, we use statistics to help. TABLE 2. If we examine the scores in Table 2. However, organizing the scores in a logical manner can facilitate the process of understanding the scores.
L03 By converting the scores into a frequency distribution, as is reflected in Table 2. A frequency distribution is simply where the scores X are indicated on the first line and the frequency f , or number, of people achieving that score is indi- cated beneath.
A frequency distribution provides a visual display to help organize data so that it is easier to see how the scores are distributed. In the frequency distribution in Table 2. Sometimes, actually graphing the frequency of scores can provide a better visual display of how a group of people scored on an instrument. A frequency polygon is often used in assessment because this graphic representation makes the data easier to understand.
A frequency polygon is a graph that charts the scores on the x-axis the horizontal and the fre- quencies of the scores on the y-axis the vertical. A point is placed by plotting the number of persons receiving each score across from the appropriate frequency. The successive points. Frequency 6. Figure 2. The frequency polygon in Figure 2. This frequency polygon also reflects that most of the people scored between 40 and 60, with the largest number of people receiving a score of Sometimes, we do not want to plot each individual score of an instrument because the range of scores is too large.
In this case, we may want to make the information more manageable by determining the frequency of people who fall within a certain interval of scores. In a histogram see Figure 2. As Figure 2. The choice of which method to use depends on which provides the best graphic display.
L04 Measures of Central Tendency Graphing the scores by using a frequency polygon or a histogram can help you understand how your score of 60 on the Counseling Aptitude Scale compares with the scores of others. It also may be useful to have some indication of how most of the other people performed on the CAS.
The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution. On the CAS scores, the mode, or the most frequent score, is 50, because both Tables 2. To find the mode, you merely count the number of people who received each score, and the score with the highest number of people is the mode.
Frequency You now know that your score of 60 is 10 points higher than the mode. It might also be helpful to know if your score is above or below the median. In other words, the median is the score that evenly divides the scores into two halves. You de- termine the median by arranging the scores in order from lowest to highest and finding the middle number.
If the distribution is comprised of an odd number of participants, then it is easy because you simply arrange the scores from smallest to largest and find the middle. For example, if there are 25 score in a distribution, then you would arrange the scores in order and then count to the 13th score. In the CAS example, there are 40 scores and thus there will not be one middle num- ber.
In this case, you take the average between the two middle scores. In the CAS examples, this is easy because when the scores are arranged from smallest to largest, the two middle scores are 50 and 50 1 50 4 2 5 50 and, therefore, the median is The median would be 2 because that is the average of 1 and 3, which are the two middle scores in this distribution.
Although a mode of 1 and a median of 2 provide some useful information about the scores of 1, 1, 1, 3, 14, 16, these measures of central tendency do not really describe the variation in scores very well, because the higher scores of 14 and 16 are not really reflected in either the mode or the median.
This is an example of why the mean is a useful measure of central tendency. The mean is the arithmetic average of the scores. The mean in the example of 1, 1, 1, 3, 14, 16 is 6, which provides a measure that represents the distribution of scores. In the earlier example, we would sum the scores 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 14 1 16 5 36 and then divide 36 by the number of scores N 5 6 , which is equal to 6. In case you are interested, the mean for the CAS scores listed in Table 2.
L05 Measures of Variability Knowing the measures of central tendency assists you in understanding what your score of 60 on the Counseling Aptitude Scale means, because you now know that your score is larger than the mean, median, and mode.
For example, it would suggest something very different if the 25 other people who took the Counseling Aptitude Scale all had scores of 60 as compared with the distribution of scores that was presented earlier see Table 2.
For example, the scores of 1, 3, 6, 9, and 11 have a mean of 6, and the scores of 5, 6, 6, 6, and 7 also have a mean of 6. Even though the means are the same, the variations in scores affect how we would interpret a score of 7. Measures of variability provide useful benchmarks because they give us an indication of how the scores vary. Range Range provides a measure of the spread of scores and indicates the variability between the highest and the lowest scores.
Range is calculated by simply subtracting the lowest score from the highest. On the Counseling Aptitude Scale, the highest score anyone received was 90, and the lowest was 10; therefore, the range is 80 90 2 10 5 Range does provide an indication of how compact or wide the variation is, but it does not really assist us in in- terpreting your CAS score of 60 very well. Range is a simple and somewhat crude measure that can be significantly influenced by one extremely high or one very low score.
Variance and Standard Deviation When interpreting scores to clients, counselors often use more precise measures to pro- vide better information about how individuals vary from the mean.
Variance and stan- dard deviation fill this need by providing more precise measures that serve as indicators of how scores vary from the mean. In examining Table 2. In the second column, there is an indication of how each score varies from the mean of 3.
If we wanted an average deviation from the mean, we could simply add these numbers together and divide by the number of scores. If we do that, however, what we get is 0. In fact, with any set of scores, given the way we calculate mean, we will always get 0. Therefore, to avoid this problem, we square the deviations, add these together, and divide by the number of scores. This number is variance or mean square deviation. In the case of Table 2. The problem with variance is that when we square the deviations, they are no longer in the same measurement unit as the original scores.
Join over Get book and read anywhere and anytime you want. Download or read online Principles and Applications of Assessment in Counseling written by Susan Indiana University Whiston, published by Unknown which was released on This comprehensive introduction to appraisal and assessment, created specifically for counseling students, presents mathematical and statistical concepts in a simple and useful manner.
The book stresses the importance of counselors being good consumers of assessment tools, to avoid misusing tools in manners harmful to clients. This comprehensive introduction to assessment, created specifically for counseling students, presents mathematical and statistical concepts in a simple and useful manner. The book stresses the importance of counselors being good consumers of assessment tools, helping them avoid misusing tools in manners that can be harmful to clients.
The latest edition of this perennial bestseller instructs and updates students and clinicians on the basic principles of psychological assessment and measurement, recent changes in assessment procedures, and the most widely used tests in counseling practice today. Danica Hays guides counselors in the appropriate selection, interpretation, and communication of. Designed to help students learn how to assess clients, conduct treatment planning, and evaluate client outcomes, this practical book addresses specific CACREP competencies.
Incorporating case studies and examples, authors Joshua C. This graduate-level text on rehabilitation and mental health counseling disseminates foundational knowledge of assessment principles and processes with a focus on clinical application.
Whiston, published by Unknown which was released on Danica Hays guides counselors in the appropriate selection, interpretation, and communication of.
Designed to help students learn how to assess clients, conduct treatment planning, and evaluate client outcomes, this practical book addresses specific CACREP competencies. Incorporating case studies and examples, authors Joshua C.
This graduate-level text on rehabilitation and mental health counseling disseminates foundational knowledge of assessment principles and processes with a focus on clinical application.
Whiston, published by Unknown which was released on Psychologists throughout the world are being asked to assess an increasingly diverse clientele: immigrants, refugees, second and third generations still influenced by different cultures and languages, and indigenous peoples now moving towards the mainstream. Most are ill-equipped by training and experience to understand, assess, and subsequently treat such clients competently.
Research has shown that the most effective way to prepare students for practice with real clients is to learn to think in a new way rather than simply learning and using a set of steps. While there is much to be learned from what master practitioners do in their sessions,. This undergraduate textbook examines how formal and informal tests are created, scored, and interpreted by mental health professionals when evaluating clients, and surveys the various techniques commonly used for assessing educational ability, intelligence, career and occupational aptitude, and clinical issues.
Easy-to-read and accessible, this book effectively communicates the excitement and dynamics of the field of psychological testing. Robert Kaplan and Dennis Saccuzzo provide students with a current analysis of the most widely used psychological tests in schools, professional training programs, business, industry, the military, and clinical settings. As students read.
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